Metaclasses 是做“类”的工作的秘密酱油,新风格对象的默认 metaclass 被称为“类型”。

class type(object)
  |  type(object) -> the object's type
  |  type(name, bases, dict) -> a new type

Metaclasses 取 3 args. 'name', 'bases' 和 'dict'

查找这个例子类定义中的名称、基础和字符号来源于哪里。

class ThisIsTheName(Bases, Are, Here):
    All_the_code_here
    def doesIs(create, a):
        dict

def test_metaclass(name, bases, dict):
    print 'The Class Name is', name
    print 'The Class Bases are', bases
    print 'The dict has', len(dict), 'elems, the keys are', dict.keys()

    return "yellow"

class TestName(object, None, int, 1):
    __metaclass__ = test_metaclass
    foo = 1
    def baz(self, arr):
        pass

print 'TestName = ', repr(TestName)

# output => 
The Class Name is TestName
The Class Bases are (<type 'object'>, None, <type 'int'>, 1)
The dict has 4 elems, the keys are ['baz', '__module__', 'foo', '__metaclass__']
TestName =  'yellow'

现在,一个实际上意味着什么的例子,这将自动使列表中的变量“属性”设置在课堂上,并设置为无。

def init_attributes(name, bases, dict):
    if 'attributes' in dict:
        for attr in dict['attributes']:
            dict[attr] = None

    return type(name, bases, dict)

class Initialised(object):
    __metaclass__ = init_attributes
    attributes = ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

print 'foo =>', Initialised.foo
# output=>
foo => None

请注意,启动者获得的魔法行为是通过拥有金属类的 init_属性而没有转移到启动者的子类。

这里是一个更具体的例子,显示如何可以创建一个在创建一个类时执行一个行动的甲型类的“类型”。

class MetaSingleton(type):
    instance = None
    def __call__(cls, *args, **kw):
        if cls.instance is None:
            cls.instance = super(MetaSingleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kw)
        return cls.instance

class Foo(object):
    __metaclass__ = MetaSingleton

a = Foo()
b = Foo()
assert a is b

简而言之:一类是创建一个例子的图标,一类是创建一个类的图标,可以很容易地看到,在Python类中,也需要第一类对象才能实现这种行为。

我从来没有自己写过一个,但我认为在Django框架中可以看到最可爱的用途之一。模型类使用一个模型类的方法,以允许写新的模型或形式类的宣言风格。

剩下的就是:如果你不知道什么是金属玻璃,那么你不需要它们的可能性是99%。

一个用途是自动将新属性和方法添加到一个例子。

例如,如果你看 Django 模型,它们的定义看起来有点困惑。

class Person(models.Model):
    first_name = models.CharField(max_length=30)
    last_name = models.CharField(max_length=30)

然而,在工作时间里,人体对象充满了各种有用的方法。

当班级声明执行时,Python 首先将班级声明的身体作为一个正常的代码块执行。 结果的名称空间(dict)保留了班级的属性. 金属阶级通过观察班级的基层(金属阶级继承),在 __金属阶级__属性的班级(如果有)或 __金属阶级__全球变量来确定。

def make_hook(f):
    """Decorator to turn 'foo' method into '__foo__'"""
    f.is_hook = 1
    return f

class MyType(type):
    def __new__(mcls, name, bases, attrs):

        if name.startswith('None'):
            return None

        # Go over attributes and see if they should be renamed.
        newattrs = {}
        for attrname, attrvalue in attrs.iteritems():
            if getattr(attrvalue, 'is_hook', 0):
                newattrs['__%s__' % attrname] = attrvalue
            else:
                newattrs[attrname] = attrvalue

        return super(MyType, mcls).__new__(mcls, name, bases, newattrs)

    def __init__(self, name, bases, attrs):
        super(MyType, self).__init__(name, bases, attrs)

        # classregistry.register(self, self.interfaces)
        print "Would register class %s now." % self

    def __add__(self, other):
        class AutoClass(self, other):
            pass
        return AutoClass
        # Alternatively, to autogenerate the classname as well as the class:
        # return type(self.__name__ + other.__name__, (self, other), {})

    def unregister(self):
        # classregistry.unregister(self)
        print "Would unregister class %s now." % self

class MyObject:
    __metaclass__ = MyType


class NoneSample(MyObject):
    pass

# Will print "NoneType None"
print type(NoneSample), repr(NoneSample)

class Example(MyObject):
    def __init__(self, value):
        self.value = value
    @make_hook
    def add(self, other):
        return self.__class__(self.value + other.value)

# Will unregister the class
Example.unregister()

inst = Example(10)
# Will fail with an AttributeError
#inst.unregister()

print inst + inst
class Sibling(MyObject):
    pass

ExampleSibling = Example + Sibling
# ExampleSibling is now a subclass of both Example and Sibling (with no
# content of its own) although it will believe it's called 'AutoClass'
print ExampleSibling
print ExampleSibling.__mro__

其他人已经解释了金属玻璃是如何工作的,它们是如何适应Python类型系统的,这里有一个例子,它们可以用于什么。在我写的测试框架中,我想跟踪在哪个类被定义的顺序,以便我后来能够在这个顺序中安装它们,我发现使用金属玻璃最容易做到这一点。

class MyMeta(type):

    counter = 0

    def __init__(cls, name, bases, dic):
        type.__init__(cls, name, bases, dic)
        cls._order = MyMeta.counter
        MyMeta.counter += 1

class MyType(object):              # Python 2
    __metaclass__ = MyMeta

class MyType(metaclass=MyMeta):    # Python 3
    pass

任何是 MyType 的子类,然后获得一个类属性 _ 命令,记录了类被定义的顺序。

>>> class ObjectCreator(object):
...       pass

>>> my_object = ObjectCreator()
>>> print(my_object)
<__main__.ObjectCreator object at 0x8974f2c>

>>> class ObjectCreator(object):
...       pass

>>> print(JustAnotherVariable)
<class '__main__.ObjectCreator'>

>>> print(JustAnotherVariable())
<__main__.ObjectCreator object at 0x8997b4c>

>>> def choose_class(name):
...     if name == 'foo':
...         class Foo(object):
...             pass
...         return Foo # return the class, not an instance
...     else:
...         class Bar(object):
...             pass
...         return Bar
...
>>> MyClass = choose_class('foo')
>>> print(MyClass) # the function returns a class, not an instance
<class '__main__.Foo'>
>>> print(MyClass()) # you can create an object from this class
<__main__.Foo object at 0x89c6d4c>

>>> print(type(1))
<type 'int'>
>>> print(type("1"))
<type 'str'>
>>> print(type(ObjectCreator))
<type 'type'>
>>> print(type(ObjectCreator()))
<class '__main__.ObjectCreator'>

type(name, bases, attrs)

>>> class MyShinyClass(object):
...       pass

>>> MyShinyClass = type('MyShinyClass', (), {}) # returns a class object
>>> print(MyShinyClass)
<class '__main__.MyShinyClass'>
>>> print(MyShinyClass()) # create an instance with the class
<__main__.MyShinyClass object at 0x8997cec>

>>> class Foo(object):
...       bar = True

>>> Foo = type('Foo', (), {'bar':True})

>>> print(Foo)
<class '__main__.Foo'>
>>> print(Foo.bar)
True
>>> f = Foo()
>>> print(f)
<__main__.Foo object at 0x8a9b84c>
>>> print(f.bar)
True

>>>   class FooChild(Foo):
...         pass

>>> FooChild = type('FooChild', (Foo,), {})
>>> print(FooChild)
<class '__main__.FooChild'>
>>> print(FooChild.bar) # bar is inherited from Foo
True

>>> def echo_bar(self):
...       print(self.bar)
...
>>> FooChild = type('FooChild', (Foo,), {'echo_bar': echo_bar})
>>> hasattr(Foo, 'echo_bar')
False
>>> hasattr(FooChild, 'echo_bar')
True
>>> my_foo = FooChild()
>>> my_foo.echo_bar()
True

>>> def echo_bar_more(self):
...       print('yet another method')
...
>>> FooChild.echo_bar_more = echo_bar_more
>>> hasattr(FooChild, 'echo_bar_more')
True

MyClass = MetaClass()
my_object = MyClass()

MyClass = type('MyClass', (), {})

>>> age = 35
>>> age.__class__
<type 'int'>
>>> name = 'bob'
>>> name.__class__
<type 'str'>
>>> def foo(): pass
>>> foo.__class__
<type 'function'>
>>> class Bar(object): pass
>>> b = Bar()
>>> b.__class__
<class '__main__.Bar'>

>>> age.__class__.__class__
<type 'type'>
>>> name.__class__.__class__
<type 'type'>
>>> foo.__class__.__class__
<type 'type'>
>>> b.__class__.__class__
<type 'type'>

class Foo(object):
    __metaclass__ = something...
    [...]

class Foo(Bar):
    pass

设置 meta 类的合成已在 Python 3 中更改:

class Foo(object, metaclass=something):
    ...

class Foo(object, metaclass=something, kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2):
    ...

# the metaclass will automatically get passed the same argument
# that you usually pass to `type`
def upper_attr(future_class_name, future_class_parents, future_class_attrs):
    """
      Return a class object, with the list of its attribute turned
      into uppercase.
    """
    # pick up any attribute that doesn't start with '__' and uppercase it
    uppercase_attrs = {
        attr if attr.startswith("__") else attr.upper(): v
        for attr, v in future_class_attrs.items()
    }

    # let `type` do the class creation
    return type(future_class_name, future_class_parents, uppercase_attrs)

__metaclass__ = upper_attr # this will affect all classes in the module

class Foo(): # global __metaclass__ won't work with "object" though
    # but we can define __metaclass__ here instead to affect only this class
    # and this will work with "object" children
    bar = 'bip'

>>> hasattr(Foo, 'bar')
False
>>> hasattr(Foo, 'BAR')
True
>>> Foo.BAR
'bip'

# remember that `type` is actually a class like `str` and `int`
# so you can inherit from it
class UpperAttrMetaclass(type):
    # __new__ is the method called before __init__
    # it's the method that creates the object and returns it
    # while __init__ just initializes the object passed as parameter
    # you rarely use __new__, except when you want to control how the object
    # is created.
    # here the created object is the class, and we want to customize it
    # so we override __new__
    # you can do some stuff in __init__ too if you wish
    # some advanced use involves overriding __call__ as well, but we won't
    # see this
    def __new__(upperattr_metaclass, future_class_name,
                future_class_parents, future_class_attrs):
        uppercase_attrs = {
            attr if attr.startswith("__") else attr.upper(): v
            for attr, v in future_class_attrs.items()
        }
        return type(future_class_name, future_class_parents, uppercase_attrs)

class UpperAttrMetaclass(type):
    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
        uppercase_attrs = {
            attr if attr.startswith("__") else attr.upper(): v
            for attr, v in attrs.items()
        }
        return type(clsname, bases, uppercase_attrs)

class UpperAttrMetaclass(type):
    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
        uppercase_attrs = {
            attr if attr.startswith("__") else attr.upper(): v
            for attr, v in attrs.items()
        }
        return type.__new__(cls, clsname, bases, uppercase_attrs)

class UpperAttrMetaclass(type):
    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
        uppercase_attrs = {
            attr if attr.startswith("__") else attr.upper(): v
            for attr, v in attrs.items()
        }

        # Python 2 requires passing arguments to super:
        return super(UpperAttrMetaclass, cls).__new__(
            cls, clsname, bases, uppercase_attrs)

        # Python 3 can use no-arg super() which infers them:
        return super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, uppercase_attrs)

class Foo(object, metaclass=MyMetaclass, kwarg1=value1):
    ...

class MyMetaclass(type):
    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, dct, kwargs1=default):
        ...

使用金属玻璃代码的复杂性背后的原因不是由于金属玻璃,而是因为你通常使用金属玻璃来制作依赖于入观、操纵遗产、如 __dict__ 等的旋转物品。

有几个理由这样做:

為什麼要使用MetaClass?

现在,大问题:为什么你会使用一些模糊的错误漏洞功能?

如果你想知道你是否需要它们,你不会(真正需要它们的人肯定知道他们需要它们,不需要解释为什么)。

Python Guru 蒂姆·彼得斯

class Person(models.Model):
    name = models.CharField(max_length=30)
    age = models.IntegerField()

person = Person(name='bob', age='35')
print(person.age)

最后一句话

首先,你知道,类是可以创造例子的物体。

>>> class Foo(object): pass
>>> id(Foo)
142630324

99%的时间你需要课堂变化,你更好地使用这些。

但98%的时间,你根本不需要课堂变化。

甲特克拉斯(甲特克拉斯)是一类,讲述了(某些)其他类应该是如何形成的。

这是一个案例,我看到甲状腺作为解决我的问题:我有一个真正复杂的问题,可能可以是不同的解决,但我选择用甲状腺解决它。 由于复杂性,这是我写的几个模块之一,在模块上的评论超过了编写的代码的数量。

#!/usr/bin/env python

# Copyright (C) 2013-2014 Craig Phillips.  All rights reserved.

# This requires some explaining.  The point of this metaclass excercise is to
# create a static abstract class that is in one way or another, dormant until
# queried.  I experimented with creating a singlton on import, but that did
# not quite behave how I wanted it to.  See now here, we are creating a class
# called GsyncOptions, that on import, will do nothing except state that its
# class creator is GsyncOptionsType.  This means, docopt doesn't parse any
# of the help document, nor does it start processing command line options.
# So importing this module becomes really efficient.  The complicated bit
# comes from requiring the GsyncOptions class to be static.  By that, I mean
# any property on it, may or may not exist, since they are not statically
# defined; so I can't simply just define the class with a whole bunch of
# properties that are @property @staticmethods.
#
# So here's how it works:
#
# Executing 'from libgsync.options import GsyncOptions' does nothing more
# than load up this module, define the Type and the Class and import them
# into the callers namespace.  Simple.
#
# Invoking 'GsyncOptions.debug' for the first time, or any other property
# causes the __metaclass__ __getattr__ method to be called, since the class
# is not instantiated as a class instance yet.  The __getattr__ method on
# the type then initialises the class (GsyncOptions) via the __initialiseClass
# method.  This is the first and only time the class will actually have its
# dictionary statically populated.  The docopt module is invoked to parse the
# usage document and generate command line options from it.  These are then
# paired with their defaults and what's in sys.argv.  After all that, we
# setup some dynamic properties that could not be defined by their name in
# the usage, before everything is then transplanted onto the actual class
# object (or static class GsyncOptions).
#
# Another piece of magic, is to allow command line options to be set in
# in their native form and be translated into argparse style properties.
#
# Finally, the GsyncListOptions class is actually where the options are
# stored.  This only acts as a mechanism for storing options as lists, to
# allow aggregation of duplicate options or options that can be specified
# multiple times.  The __getattr__ call hides this by default, returning the
# last item in a property's list.  However, if the entire list is required,
# calling the 'list()' method on the GsyncOptions class, returns a reference
# to the GsyncListOptions class, which contains all of the same properties
# but as lists and without the duplication of having them as both lists and
# static singlton values.
#
# So this actually means that GsyncOptions is actually a static proxy class...
#
# ...And all this is neatly hidden within a closure for safe keeping.
def GetGsyncOptionsType():
    class GsyncListOptions(object):
        __initialised = False

    class GsyncOptionsType(type):
        def __initialiseClass(cls):
            if GsyncListOptions._GsyncListOptions__initialised: return

            from docopt import docopt
            from libgsync.options import doc
            from libgsync import __version__

            options = docopt(
                doc.__doc__ % __version__,
                version = __version__,
                options_first = True
            )

            paths = options.pop('<path>', None)
            setattr(cls, "destination_path", paths.pop() if paths else None)
            setattr(cls, "source_paths", paths)
            setattr(cls, "options", options)

            for k, v in options.iteritems():
                setattr(cls, k, v)

            GsyncListOptions._GsyncListOptions__initialised = True

        def list(cls):
            return GsyncListOptions

        def __getattr__(cls, name):
            cls.__initialiseClass()
            return getattr(GsyncListOptions, name)[-1]

        def __setattr__(cls, name, value):
            # Substitut option names: --an-option-name for an_option_name
            import re
            name = re.sub(r'^__', "", re.sub(r'-', "_", name))
            listvalue = []

            # Ensure value is converted to a list type for GsyncListOptions
            if isinstance(value, list):
                if value:
                    listvalue = [] + value
                else:
                    listvalue = [ None ]
            else:
                listvalue = [ value ]

            type.__setattr__(GsyncListOptions, name, listvalue)

    # Cleanup this module to prevent tinkering.
    import sys
    module = sys.modules[__name__]
    del module.__dict__['GetGsyncOptionsType']

    return GsyncOptionsType

# Our singlton abstract proxy class.
class GsyncOptions(object):
    __metaclass__ = GetGsyncOptionsType()

什么是Metaclasses?你用它们用于什么?

>>> Class(...)
instance

>>> Metaclass(...)
Class

>>> type('Foo', (object,), {}) # requires a name, bases, and a namespace
<class '__main__.Foo'>

每当你创建一个类时,你都会使用一个类型:

class Foo(object): 
    'demo'

>>> Foo
<class '__main__.Foo'>
>>> isinstance(Foo, type), isinstance(Foo, object)
(True, True)

name = 'Foo'
bases = (object,)
namespace = {'__doc__': 'demo'}
Foo = type(name, bases, namespace)

>>> Foo.__dict__
dict_proxy({'__dict__': <attribute '__dict__' of 'Foo' objects>, 
'__module__': '__main__', '__weakref__': <attribute '__weakref__' 
of 'Foo' objects>, '__doc__': 'demo'})

(在 __dict__: __module__ 类的内容上有一个侧笔记,因为类必须知道它们在哪里定义,而 __dict__ 和 __weakref__ 是因为我们不定义 __slots__ - 如果我们定义 __slots__ 我们会在例子中节省一些空间,因为我们可以通过排除它们来排除 __dict__ 和 __weakref__。

>>> Baz = type('Bar', (object,), {'__doc__': 'demo', '__slots__': ()})
>>> Baz.__dict__
mappingproxy({'__doc__': 'demo', '__slots__': (), '__module__': '__main__'})

我们可以像任何其他类定义一样扩展类型:

>>> Foo
<class '__main__.Foo'>

class Type(type):
    def __repr__(cls):
        """
        >>> Baz
        Type('Baz', (Foo, Bar,), {'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': None})
        >>> eval(repr(Baz))
        Type('Baz', (Foo, Bar,), {'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': None})
        """
        metaname = type(cls).__name__
        name = cls.__name__
        parents = ', '.join(b.__name__ for b in cls.__bases__)
        if parents:
            parents += ','
        namespace = ', '.join(': '.join(
          (repr(k), repr(v) if not isinstance(v, type) else v.__name__))
               for k, v in cls.__dict__.items())
        return '{0}(\'{1}\', ({2}), {{{3}}})'.format(metaname, name, parents, namespace)
    def __eq__(cls, other):
        """
        >>> Baz == eval(repr(Baz))
        True            
        """
        return (cls.__name__, cls.__bases__, cls.__dict__) == (
                other.__name__, other.__bases__, other.__dict__)

>>> class Bar(object): pass
>>> Baz = Type('Baz', (Foo, Bar,), {'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': None})
>>> Baz
Type('Baz', (Foo, Bar,), {'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': None})

但是,与 eval(repr(Class))的进一步检查是不可能的(因为函数将是相当不可能从他们的默认 __repr__ 的 eval 。

from collections import OrderedDict

class OrderedType(Type):
    @classmethod
    def __prepare__(metacls, name, bases, **kwargs):
        return OrderedDict()
    def __new__(cls, name, bases, namespace, **kwargs):
        result = Type.__new__(cls, name, bases, dict(namespace))
        result.members = tuple(namespace)
        return result

class OrderedMethodsObject(object, metaclass=OrderedType):
    def method1(self): pass
    def method2(self): pass
    def method3(self): pass
    def method4(self): pass

>>> OrderedMethodsObject.members
('__module__', '__qualname__', 'method1', 'method2', 'method3', 'method4')

>>> inspect.getmro(OrderedType)
(<class '__main__.OrderedType'>, <class '__main__.Type'>, <class 'type'>, <class 'object'>)

而且它大约有正确的回报(除非我们能找到代表我们的功能的方式,否则我们就不能再评估):

>>> OrderedMethodsObject
OrderedType('OrderedMethodsObject', (object,), {'method1': <function OrderedMethodsObject.method1 at 0x0000000002DB01E0>, 'members': ('__module__', '__qualname__', 'method1', 'method2', 'method3', 'method4'), 'method3': <function OrderedMet
hodsObject.method3 at 0x0000000002DB02F0>, 'method2': <function OrderedMethodsObject.method2 at 0x0000000002DB0268>, '__module__': '__main__', '__weakref__': <attribute '__weakref__' of 'OrderedMethodsObject' objects>, '__doc__': None, '__d
ict__': <attribute '__dict__' of 'OrderedMethodsObject' objects>, 'method4': <function OrderedMethodsObject.method4 at 0x0000000002DB0378>})

Python 3 更新

在一个甲状腺中,有(目前)两个关键方法:

__prepare__ 允许您提供自定义地图(如 OrderedDict)作为名称空间使用,而类正在创建。

__new__ 负责最终类的实际创建/修改。

一个色彩色彩,不做任何东西 - 额外的金属类会喜欢:

class Meta(type):

    def __prepare__(metaclass, cls, bases):
        return dict()

    def __new__(metacls, cls, bases, clsdict):
        return super().__new__(metacls, cls, bases, clsdict)

一个简单的例子:

说你想要一些简单的验证代码在你的属性上运行 - 因为它必须总是一个 int 或 str. 没有一个 metaclass,你的类会看起来像:

class Person:
    weight = ValidateType('weight', int)
    age = ValidateType('age', int)
    name = ValidateType('name', str)

正如你可以看到的那样,你必须重复属性的名称两次,这使得类型与刺激的错误一起可能。

一个简单的甲状腺可以解决这个问题:

class Person(metaclass=Validator):
    weight = ValidateType(int)
    age = ValidateType(int)
    name = ValidateType(str)

class Validator(type):
    def __new__(metacls, cls, bases, clsdict):
        # search clsdict looking for ValidateType descriptors
        for name, attr in clsdict.items():
            if isinstance(attr, ValidateType):
                attr.name = name
                attr.attr = '_' + name
        # create final class and return it
        return super().__new__(metacls, cls, bases, clsdict)

一个样本运行:

p = Person()
p.weight = 9
print(p.weight)
p.weight = '9'

生产:

9
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "simple_meta.py", line 36, in <module>
    p.weight = '9'
  File "simple_meta.py", line 24, in __set__
    (self.name, self.type, value))
TypeError: weight must be of type(s) <class 'int'> (got '9')

---

注意:这个例子是简单的,它也可能已经完成了一个类装饰师,但假设一个真正的金属玻璃会做得更多。

class ValidateType:
    def __init__(self, type):
        self.name = None  # will be set by metaclass
        self.attr = None  # will be set by metaclass
        self.type = type
    def __get__(self, inst, cls):
        if inst is None:
            return self
        else:
            return inst.__dict__[self.attr]
    def __set__(self, inst, value):
        if not isinstance(value, self.type):
            raise TypeError('%s must be of type(s) %s (got %r)' %
                    (self.name, self.type, value))
        else:
            inst.__dict__[self.attr] = value

类型实际上是一类 - 创建另一个类的类型. 大多数类型是类型的子类型. 类型接收新类作为其第一个论点,并提供到类对象的访问,如下所述的细节:

>>> class MetaClass(type):
...     def __init__(cls, name, bases, attrs):
...         print ('class name: %s' %name )
...         print ('Defining class %s' %cls)
...         print('Bases %s: ' %bases)
...         print('Attributes')
...         for (name, value) in attrs.items():
...             print ('%s :%r' %(name, value))
... 

>>> class NewClass(object, metaclass=MetaClass):
...    get_choch='dairy'
... 
class name: NewClass
Bases <class 'object'>: 
Defining class <class 'NewClass'>
get_choch :'dairy'
__module__ :'builtins'
__qualname__ :'NewClass'

注:

请注意,课堂在任何时候都没有被暂停;创建课堂的简单行为引发了金属课堂的执行。

# define a class
class SomeClass(object):
    # ...
    # some definition here ...
    # ...

# create an instance of it
instance = SomeClass()

# then call the object as if it's a function
result = instance('foo', 'bar')

class SomeClass(object):
    # ...
    # some definition here ...
    # ...

    def __call__(self, foo, bar):
        return bar + foo

但是,正如我们从以前的答案中看到的那样,一个类本身就是一个金属类的例子,所以当我们使用这个类作为一个金属类(即当我们创建一个例子时),我们实际上称它为金属类的 __call__() 方法。

class Meta_1(type):
    def __call__(cls):
        print "Meta_1.__call__() before creating an instance of ", cls
        instance = super(Meta_1, cls).__call__()
        print "Meta_1.__call__() about to return instance."
        return instance

这是一个使用这个MetaClass的班级。

class Class_1(object):

    __metaclass__ = Meta_1

    def __new__(cls):
        print "Class_1.__new__() before creating an instance."
        instance = super(Class_1, cls).__new__(cls)
        print "Class_1.__new__() about to return instance."
        return instance

    def __init__(self):
        print "entering Class_1.__init__() for instance initialization."
        super(Class_1,self).__init__()
        print "exiting Class_1.__init__()."

现在,让我们创建一个类_1的例子。

instance = Class_1()
# Meta_1.__call__() before creating an instance of <class '__main__.Class_1'>.
# Class_1.__new__() before creating an instance.
# Class_1.__new__() about to return instance.
# entering Class_1.__init__() for instance initialization.
# exiting Class_1.__init__().
# Meta_1.__call__() about to return instance.

class type:
    def __call__(cls, *args, **kwarg):

        # ... maybe a few things done to cls here

        # then we call __new__() on the class to create an instance
        instance = cls.__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)

        # ... maybe a few things done to the instance here

        # then we initialize the instance with its __init__() method
        instance.__init__(*args, **kwargs)

        # ... maybe a few more things done to instance here

        # then we return it
        return instance

从上述情况下,它表明,MetaClass的 __call__() 还有机会决定是否会最终对 Class_1.__new__() 或 Class_1.__init__() 进行呼叫。在执行过程中,它实际上可以返回没有被这些方法触摸的对象。

class Meta_2(type):
    singletons = {}

    def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
        if cls in Meta_2.singletons:
            # we return the only instance and skip a call to __new__()
            # and __init__()
            print ("{} singleton returning from Meta_2.__call__(), "
                   "skipping creation of new instance.".format(cls))
            return Meta_2.singletons[cls]

        # else if the singleton isn't present we proceed as usual
        print "Meta_2.__call__() before creating an instance."
        instance = super(Meta_2, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
        Meta_2.singletons[cls] = instance
        print "Meta_2.__call__() returning new instance."
        return instance

class Class_2(object):

    __metaclass__ = Meta_2

    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
        print "Class_2.__new__() before creating instance."
        instance = super(Class_2, cls).__new__(cls)
        print "Class_2.__new__() returning instance."
        return instance

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        print "entering Class_2.__init__() for initialization."
        super(Class_2, self).__init__()
        print "exiting Class_2.__init__()."

让我们来看看在重复试图创建类型Class_2的对象时会发生什么。

a = Class_2()
# Meta_2.__call__() before creating an instance.
# Class_2.__new__() before creating instance.
# Class_2.__new__() returning instance.
# entering Class_2.__init__() for initialization.
# exiting Class_2.__init__().
# Meta_2.__call__() returning new instance.

b = Class_2()
# <class '__main__.Class_2'> singleton returning from Meta_2.__call__(), skipping creation of new instance.

c = Class_2()
# <class '__main__.Class_2'> singleton returning from Meta_2.__call__(), skipping creation of new instance.

a is b is c # True

此分類上一篇: tl;dr version

类型(obj)函数会给你一个对象的类型。

一个阶级的类型( )是它的甲型阶级。

使用甲状腺:

class Foo(object):
    __metaclass__ = MyMetaClass

一个类的类是一个类的类 - 一个类的身体是转移到一个类的论点,它被用来构建一个类。

在这里,你可以阅读如何使用金属玻璃来自定义课堂建筑。

Python 类本身是它们的 meta 类的对象 - 例如。

默认的金属类,当您确定类时应用于:

class foo:
    ...

例如,假设您正在构建一个ORM访问数据库,并且您希望每个表中的记录来自一个类地图到该表(基于字段,业务规则等),一个可能的使用MetaClass是例如,连接池逻辑,由所有表中的记录的所有类共享。

当你定义甲型时,你可以分类类型,并且可以超越下列魔法方法来插入你的逻辑。

class somemeta(type):
    __new__(mcs, name, bases, clsdict):
      """
  mcs: is the base metaclass, in this case type.
  name: name of the new class, as provided by the user.
  bases: tuple of base classes 
  clsdict: a dictionary containing all methods and attributes defined on class

  you must return a class object by invoking the __new__ constructor on the base metaclass. 
 ie: 
    return type.__call__(mcs, name, bases, clsdict).

  in the following case:

  class foo(baseclass):
        __metaclass__ = somemeta

  an_attr = 12

  def bar(self):
      ...

  @classmethod
  def foo(cls):
      ...

      arguments would be : ( somemeta, "foo", (baseclass, baseofbase,..., object), {"an_attr":12, "bar": <function>, "foo": <bound class method>}

      you can modify any of these values before passing on to type
      """
      return type.__call__(mcs, name, bases, clsdict)


    def __init__(self, name, bases, clsdict):
      """ 
      called after type has been created. unlike in standard classes, __init__ method cannot modify the instance (cls) - and should be used for class validaton.
      """
      pass


    def __prepare__():
        """
        returns a dict or something that can be used as a namespace.
        the type will then attach methods and attributes from class definition to it.

        call order :

        somemeta.__new__ ->  type.__new__ -> type.__init__ -> somemeta.__init__ 
        """
        return dict()

    def mymethod(cls):
        """ works like a classmethod, but for class objects. Also, my method will not be visible to instances of cls.
        """
        pass

无论如何,这两种是最常用的<unk>子,甲板是强大的,上面没有附近和完整的用途列表用于甲板。

型()函数可以返回对象的类型或创建一个新的类型,

例如,我们可以使用类()函数创建一个 Hi 类,并且不需要使用类 Hi(对象):

def func(self, name='mike'):
    print('Hi, %s.' % name)

Hi = type('Hi', (object,), dict(hi=func))
h = Hi()
h.hi()
Hi, mike.

type(Hi)
type

type(h)
__main__.Hi

除了使用类()以动态创建类,您还可以控制类的创建行为,并使用甲塔克拉斯。

根据 Python 对象模型,类是对象,所以类必须是另一个特定的类的例子. 默认情况下, Python 类是类类类的例子. 也就是说,类是大多数内置类的甲型类和用户定义类的甲型类。

class ListMetaclass(type):
    def __new__(cls, name, bases, attrs):
        attrs['add'] = lambda self, value: self.append(value)
        return type.__new__(cls, name, bases, attrs)

class CustomList(list, metaclass=ListMetaclass):
    pass

lst = CustomList()
lst.add('custom_list_1')
lst.add('custom_list_2')

lst
['custom_list_1', 'custom_list_2']

魔法将有效,当我们通过关键词论点在Metaclass,它指示Python翻译器通过ListMetaclass创建CustomList。新(),在此时,我们可以修改类定义,例如,并添加一个新的方法,然后返回修订的定义。

除了发布的答案,我可以说,一个甲状腺可以定义一个类的行为,所以,你可以明确设置你的甲状腺,每当Python获得一个关键词类,然后它开始搜索甲状腺,如果它没有找到 - 默认甲状腺类型用于创建一个类的对象,使用 __metaclass__属性,你可以设置你的甲状腺类:

class MyClass:
   __metaclass__ = type
   # write here other method
   # write here one more method

print(MyClass.__metaclass__)

它将产生这样的产量:

class 'type'

当然,你可以创建自己的金属类来定义使用你的类创建的任何类的行为。

要做到这一点,您的默认金属类型类必须继承,因为这是主要金属类:

class MyMetaClass(type):
   __metaclass__ = type
   # you can write here any behaviour you want

class MyTestClass:
   __metaclass__ = MyMetaClass

Obj = MyTestClass()
print(Obj.__metaclass__)
print(MyMetaClass.__metaclass__)

产量将是:

class '__main__.MyMetaClass'
class 'type'

在以对象为导向的编程中,一个代码类是一种类,其例子是类。 正如普通类定义某些对象的行为一样,一个代码类定义某些类的行为和其例子 这个术语的代码类简单地意味着用于创建类的东西。

下面是另一个例子,它可以用于什么:

您可以使用甲状腺来改变其例子(类)的功能。

class MetaMemberControl(type):
    __slots__ = ()

    @classmethod
    def __prepare__(mcs, f_cls_name, f_cls_parents,  # f_cls means: future class
                    meta_args=None, meta_options=None):  # meta_args and meta_options is not necessarily needed, just so you know.
        f_cls_attr = dict()
        if not "do something or if you want to define your cool stuff of dict...":
            return dict(make_your_special_dict=None)
        else:
            return f_cls_attr

    def __new__(mcs, f_cls_name, f_cls_parents, f_cls_attr,
                meta_args=None, meta_options=None):

        original_getattr = f_cls_attr.get('__getattribute__')
        original_setattr = f_cls_attr.get('__setattr__')

        def init_getattr(self, item):
            if not item.startswith('_'):  # you can set break points at here
                alias_name = '_' + item
                if alias_name in f_cls_attr['__slots__']:
                    item = alias_name
            if original_getattr is not None:
                return original_getattr(self, item)
            else:
                return super(eval(f_cls_name), self).__getattribute__(item)

        def init_setattr(self, key, value):
            if not key.startswith('_') and ('_' + key) in f_cls_attr['__slots__']:
                raise AttributeError(f"you can't modify private members:_{key}")
            if original_setattr is not None:
                original_setattr(self, key, value)
            else:
                super(eval(f_cls_name), self).__setattr__(key, value)

        f_cls_attr['__getattribute__'] = init_getattr
        f_cls_attr['__setattr__'] = init_setattr

        cls = super().__new__(mcs, f_cls_name, f_cls_parents, f_cls_attr)
        return cls


class Human(metaclass=MetaMemberControl):
    __slots__ = ('_age', '_name')

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        self._name = name
        self._age = age

    def __getattribute__(self, item):
        """
        is just for IDE recognize.
        """
        return super().__getattribute__(item)

    """ with MetaMemberControl then you don't have to write as following
    @property
    def name(self):
        return self._name

    @property
    def age(self):
        return self._age
    """


def test_demo():
    human = Human('Carson', 27)
    # human.age = 18  # you can't modify private members:_age  <-- this is defined by yourself.
    # human.k = 18  # 'Human' object has no attribute 'k'  <-- system error.
    age1 = human._age  # It's OK, although the IDE will show some warnings. (Access to a protected member _age of a class)

    age2 = human.age  # It's OK! see below:
    """
    if you do not define `__getattribute__` at the class of Human,
    the IDE will show you: Unresolved attribute reference 'age' for class 'Human'
    but it's ok on running since the MetaMemberControl will help you.
    """


if __name__ == '__main__':
    test_demo()

金星是强大的,有很多事情(如猴子魔法)你可以用它,但要小心,这可能只是你知道的。

类,在Python,是一个对象,和任何其他对象一样,它是一个例子“什么”。这个“什么”是所谓的MetaClass。这个MetaClass是一个特殊类型的类,创造了其他类的对象。因此,MetaClass负责创造新的类。

Class Name Tuple 具有由 Class A 继承的基类 词典具有所有类方法和类变量

另一种方式创建一个金属类是“金属类”的关键词,将金属类定义为一个简单的类,在继承类的参数中,通过金属类=金属类_名称。

Metaclass 可以在以下情况下具体使用:

请注意,在Python 3.6中,引入了一个新的Dunder方法 __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs),以取代许多常见的使用案例为MetaClass。

在Python中,一类是指一个子类的子类,它决定一个子类的行为方式;在Python中,一类是另一个子类的例子;在Python中,一类是指一个子类的例子将如何行事。

由于甲基层负责类型,所以你可以写自己的自定义甲基层来改变类型是通过执行额外的操作或注射代码创建的方式。

我看到一个有趣的使用案例在一个名为类用途的包中,它检查是否所有类变量在顶部案例格式(方便有统一逻辑的配置类),并检查是否没有例子级方法在课堂上。

上面的答案是正确的。

但读者可能来到这里寻找关于类似名称的内部课程的答案,他们在受欢迎的图书馆,如Django和WTForms。

相反,这些是班级的命令之内的名称空间,它们是用内部班级为可读性而建造的。

在这个特殊的例子领域,抽象是显而易见地与作者模型的领域分开。

from django.db import models

class Author(models.Model):
    name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
    email = models.EmailField()

    class Meta:
        abstract = True

另一个例子是WTForms的文档:

from wtforms.form import Form
from wtforms.csrf.session import SessionCSRF
from wtforms.fields import StringField

class MyBaseForm(Form):
    class Meta:
        csrf = True
        csrf_class = SessionCSRF

    name = StringField("name")

这个合成不会在Python编程语言中得到特别的处理. Meta 不是这里的一个关键词,也不会引发 meta 类行为. 相反,第三方图书馆代码在 Django 和 WTForms 等包中,在某些类的构建者和其他地方读到这个属性。

这些声明的存在改变了具有这些声明的类别的行为. 例如,WTForms 阅读 self.Meta.csrf 以确定表格是否需要一个 csrf 字段。

看这:

Python 3.10.0rc2 (tags/v3.10.0rc2:839d789, Sep  7 2021, 18:51:45) [MSC v.1929 64 bit (AMD64)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> class Object:
...     pass
... 
>>> class Meta(type):
...     test = 'Worked!!!'
...     def __repr__(self):
...             return 'This is "Meta" metaclass'
... 
>>> class ObjectWithMetaClass(metaclass=Meta):
...     pass
... 
>>> Object or type(Object())
<class '__main__.Object'>
>>> ObjectWithMetaClass or type(ObjectWithMetaClass())
This is "Meta" metaclass
>>> Object.test
AttributeError: ...
>>> ObjectWithMetaClass.test
'Worked!!!'
>>> type(Object)
<class 'type'>
>>> type(ObjectWithMetaClass)
<class '__main__.Meta'>
>>> type(type(ObjectWithMetaClass))
<class 'type'>
>>> Object.__bases__
(<class 'object'>,)
>>> ObjectWithMetaClass.__bases__
(<class 'object'>,)
>>> type(ObjectWithMetaClass).__bases__
(<class 'type'>,)
>>> Object.__mro__
(<class '__main__.Object'>, <class 'object'>)
>>> ObjectWithMetaClass.__mro__
(This is "Meta" metaclass, <class 'object'>)
>>> 

换句话说,当一个对象没有创建(对象类型),我们正在寻找MetaClass。

在 Python 或任何其他语言中,我们对每个变量或对象都有一个类型. 在 Python 中,我们可以使用 Type() 函数来获得任何类型(变量、对象等)。

通过在课堂定义中的 meta 类关键词,我们可以自定义课堂创建过程。

class meta(type):
    pass
class baseclass(metaclass=meta): # This is Mestaclass
    pass
class derivedclass(baseclass):
    pass
print(type(meta))
print(type(baseclass))
print(type(derivedclass))

在定义新类时,如果没有定义的甲型,则使用默认类型甲型;如果一个甲型不是类型(例)的对象(例),则在这种情况下,它直接用作甲型。