事实上，即使在没有可变状态的语言中，也很容易有一些看起来像可变状态的东西。

Consider a function with type s -> (a, s). Translating from Haskell syntax, it means a function which takes one parameter of type "s" and returns a pair of values, of types "a" and "s". If s is the type of our state, this function takes one state and returns a new state, and possibly a value (you can always return "unit" aka (), which is sort of equivalent to "void" in C/C++, as the "a" type). If you chain several calls of functions with types like this (getting the state returned from one function and passing it to the next), you have "mutable" state (in fact you are in each function creating a new state and abandoning the old one).

It might be easier to understand if you imagine the mutable state as the "space" where your program is executing, and then think of the time dimension. At instant t1, the "space" is in a certain condition (say for example some memory location has value 5). At a later instant t2, it is in a different condition (for example that memory location now has value 10). Each of these time "slices" is a state, and it is immutable (you cannot go back in time to change them). So, from this point of view, you went from the full spacetime with a time arrow (your mutable state) to a set of slices of spacetime (several immutable states), and your program is just treating each slice as a value and computing each of them as a function applied to the previous one.

好吧，也许这并不容易理解:-)

It might seem inneficient to explicitly represent the whole program state as a value, which has to be created only to be discarded the next instant (just after a new one is created). For some algorithms it might be natural, but when it is not, there is another trick. Instead of a real state, you can use a fake state which is nothing more than a marker (let's call the type of this fake state State#). This fake state exists from the point of view of the language, and is passed like any other value, but the compiler completely omits it when generating the machine code. It only serves to mark the sequence of execution.

举个例子，假设编译器给了我们以下函数:

readRef :: Ref a -> State# -> (a, State#)
writeRef :: Ref a -> a -> State# -> (a, State#)

从这些类似haskell的声明中转换，readRef接收到类似于指向“a”类型值和假状态的指针或句柄的东西，并返回由第一个形参和新的假状态指向的“a”类型值。writeRef类似，但是改变了所指向的值。

If you call readRef and then pass it the fake state returned by writeRef (perhaps with other calls to unrelated functions in the middle; these state values create a "chain" of function calls), it will return the value written. You can call writeRef again with the same pointer/handle and it will write to the same memory location — but, since conceptually it is returning a new (fake) state, the (fake) state is still imutable (a new one has been "created"). The compiler will call the functions in the order it would have to call them if there was a real state variable which had to be computed, but the only state which there is is the full (mutable) state of the real hardware.

(了解Haskell的人会注意到我简化了很多东西，并省略了一些重要的细节。对于那些想要看到更多细节的人，看看mtl中的Control.Monad.State，以及ST和IO(又名ST RealWorld)单子。

You might wonder why doing it in such a roundabout way (instead of simply having mutable state in the language). The real advantage is that you have reified your program's state. What before was implicit (your program state was global, allowing for things like action at a distance) is now explicit. Functions which do not receive and return the state cannot modify it or be influenced by it; they are "pure". Even better, you can have separate state threads, and with a bit of type magic, they can be used to embed an imperative computation within a pure one, without making it impure (the ST monad in Haskell is the one normally used for this trick; the State# I mentioned above is in fact GHC's State# s, used by its implementation of the ST and IO monads).

注意，说函数式编程没有“状态”有点误导，可能是造成混淆的原因。它肯定没有“可变状态”，但它仍然可以有被操纵的值;它们只是不能就地更改(例如，您必须从旧值创建新值)。

这是一个严重的过度简化，但是想象一下你有一个OO语言，其中类上的所有属性只在构造函数中设置一次，所有方法都是静态函数。您仍然可以通过让方法获取包含计算所需的所有值的对象，然后返回带有结果的新对象(甚至可能是同一对象的新实例)来执行几乎任何计算。

将现有代码转换为这种范式可能“很难”，但这是因为它确实需要一种完全不同的思考代码的方式。但作为一个副作用，在大多数情况下，您可以免费获得大量并行机会。

附录:(关于如何跟踪需要更改的值的编辑) 当然，它们会被存储在一个不可变的数据结构中……

这不是一个建议的“解决方案”，但最简单的方法是，你可以将这些不可变的值存储到一个类似map(字典/哈希表)的结构中，以“变量名”为键。

显然，在实际解决方案中，您应该使用更明智的方法，但这确实表明，如果其他方法都不起作用，那么在最坏情况下，您可以使用这样一个贯穿调用树的映射来“模拟”可变状态。

我觉得这里有点误会。纯函数式程序有状态。不同之处在于该状态是如何建模的。在纯函数式编程中，状态是由接受某个状态并返回下一个状态的函数操作的。然后通过将状态传递给纯函数序列来实现状态排序。

甚至全局可变状态也可以这样建模。例如，在Haskell中，程序是一个从World到World的函数。也就是说，你传入整个宇宙，程序返回一个新的宇宙。但是，在实践中，您只需要传入您的程序实际感兴趣的部分。程序实际上返回一系列动作，作为程序运行的操作环境的指令。

您希望从命令式编程的角度对此进行解释。好的，让我们看一些用函数式语言编写的非常简单的命令式编程。

考虑下面的代码:

int x = 1;
int y = x + 1;
x = x + y;
return x;

相当标准的命令式代码。没有做什么有趣的事情，但这是可以用来说明的。我想你们会同意这里涉及到国家。变量x的值随时间变化。现在，让我们稍微改变一下符号，发明一个新的语法:

let x = 1 in
let y = x + 1 in
let z = x + y in z 

加上括号使它的意思更清楚:

let x = 1 in (let y = x + 1 in (let z = x + y in (z)))

可以看到，状态是由一系列纯表达式建模的，这些纯表达式绑定了下面表达式的自由变量。

您会发现这个模式可以建模任何类型的状态，甚至IO。

下面是如何在没有可变状态的情况下编写代码:不是将变化状态放入可变变量中，而是将其放入函数的参数中。不写循环，而是写递归函数。比如这段命令式代码:

f_imperative(y) {
  local x;
  x := e;
  while p(x, y) do
    x := g(x, y)
  return h(x, y)
}

变成这样的函数代码(类似scheme的语法):

(define (f-functional y) 
  (letrec (
     (f-helper (lambda (x y)
                  (if (p x y) 
                     (f-helper (g x y) y)
                     (h x y)))))
     (f-helper e y)))

或者这个Haskellish代码

f_fun y = h x_final y
   where x_initial = e
         x_final   = loop x_initial
         loop x = if p x y then loop (g x y) else x

至于为什么函数式程序员喜欢这样做(你没有问)，你的程序中无状态的部分越多，就有越多的方法可以在不中断的情况下将这些部分组合在一起。无状态范式的强大之处在于它本身不具有无状态性(或纯粹性)，而在于它使您能够编写强大的、可重用的函数并将它们组合起来。

你可以在John Hughes的论文Why Functional Programming Matters中找到一个很好的教程，里面有很多例子。

JavaScript provides very clear examples of the different ways of approaching mutable or immutable state\values within its core because the ECMAScript specifications were not able to settle on a universal standard so one must continue to memorize or doublecheck which functions create a new object that they return or modify the original object passed to it. If your entire language is immutable then you know you are always getting a new (copied & possibly modified) result and never have to worry about accidentally modifying the variable before passing it into a function.

你知道哪个会返回一个新的对象，哪个会改变下面例子中的原始对象吗?

Array.prototype.push()
String.prototype.slice()
Array.prototype.splice()
String.prototype.trim()

这就是没有COMMON块的FORTRAN的工作方式:您将编写具有传入值和局部变量的方法。就是这样。

面向对象编程将我们的状态和行为结合在一起，但当我在1994年第一次从c++中接触到它时，它还是一个新思想。

天啊，当我还是机械工程师的时候，我是一个函数式程序员，而我却不知道!