什么是内存碎片?

When your app uses dynamic memory, it allocates and frees chunks of memory. In the beginning, the whole memory space of your app is one contiguous block of free memory. However, when you allocate and free blocks of different size, the memory starts to get fragmented, i.e. instead of a big contiguous free block and a number of contiguous allocated blocks, there will be a allocated and free blocks mixed up. Since the free blocks have limited size, it is difficult to reuse them. E.g. you may have 1000 bytes of free memory, but can't allocate memory for a 100 byte block, because all the free blocks are at most 50 bytes long.

另一个不可避免但问题较少的碎片来源是，在大多数架构中，内存地址必须对齐到2,4,8等字节边界(即地址必须是2,4,8的倍数等)这意味着，即使你有一个包含3个char字段的结构，你的结构可能有12而不是3，因为每个字段都对齐到4字节边界。

如何判断内存碎片是否是我的应用程序的一个问题?什么样的程序最可能受到影响?

最明显的答案是内存不足异常。

显然，在c++应用程序中，没有一种好的便携式方法来检测内存碎片。更多细节请看这个答案。

处理内存碎片的常用方法是什么?

这在c++中很困难，因为你在指针中使用直接内存地址，你无法控制谁引用特定的内存地址。因此，重新安排已分配的内存块(Java垃圾收集器的方式)是不可取的。

自定义分配器可以通过在较大内存块中管理小对象的分配，并重用该块中的空闲插槽来提供帮助。

什么样的程序最可能受到影响?

关于与内存碎片相关的问题，一个很好的(=可怕的)例子是Stardock的电脑游戏“Elemental: War of Magic”的开发和发行。

这款游戏是基于32位/2GB内存构建的，所以必须在内存管理方面进行大量优化，以确保游戏能够在这2GB内存中运行。由于“优化”导致不断分配和取消分配，随着时间的推移，堆内存碎片发生，导致游戏每次都崩溃。

YouTube上有一个“战争故事”采访。

更新: 谷歌TCMalloc:线程缓存Malloc 已经发现它在处理长时间运行进程中的碎片方面相当出色。

我一直在开发一个服务器应用程序，它在HP-UX 11.23/11.31 ia64上存在内存碎片问题。

它是这样的。有一个进程进行内存分配和释放，并运行了几天。即使没有内存泄漏，进程的内存消耗也在不断增加。

About my experience. On HP-UX it is very easy to find memory fragmentation using HP-UX gdb. You set a break-point and when you hit it you run this command: info heap and see all memory allocations for the process and the total size of heap. Then your continue your program and then some time later your again hit the break-point. You do again info heap. If the total size of heap is bigger but the number and the size of separate allocations are the same then it is likely that you have memory allocation problems. If necessary do this check few fore times.

My way of improving the situation was this. After I had done some analysis with HP-UX gdb I saw that memory problems were caused by the fact that I used std::vector for storing some types of information from a database. std::vector requires that its data must be kept in one block. I had a few containers based on std::vector. These containers were regularly recreated. There were often situations when new records were added to the database and after that the containers were recreated. And since the recreated containers were bigger their did not fit into available blocks of free memory and the runtime asked for a new bigger block from the OS. As a result even though there were no memory leaks the memory consumption of the process grew. I improved the situation when I changed the containers. Instead of std::vector I started using std::deque which has a different way of allocating memory for data.

我知道在HP-UX上避免内存碎片的方法之一是使用小块分配器或使用MallocNextGen。在RedHat Linux上，默认的分配器似乎可以很好地处理大量小块的分配。在Windows上有低碎片堆，它解决了大量小分配的问题。

My understanding is that in an STL-heavy application you have first to identify problems. Memory allocators (like in libc) actually handle the problem of a lot of small allocations, which is typical for std::string (for instance in my server application there are lots of STL strings but as I see from running info heap they are not causing any problems). My impression is that you need to avoid frequent large allocations. Unfortunately there are situations when you can't avoid them and have to change your code. As I say in my case I improved the situation when switched to std::deque. If you identify your memory fragmention it might be possible to talk about it more precisely.

什么是内存碎片?

Memory fragmentation is the problem of memory becoming unusable even though it is theoretically available. There are two kinds of fragmentation: internal fragmentation is memory that is allocated but cannot be used (e.g. when memory is allocated in 8 byte chunks but the program repeatedly does single allocations when it needs only 4 bytes). external fragmentation is the problem of free memory becoming divided into many small chunks so that large allocation requests cannot be met although there is enough overall free memory.

如何判断内存碎片是否是我的应用程序的一个问题?什么样的程序最可能受到影响?

如果您的程序使用的系统内存远远超过其实际有效负载数据所需的内存(并且您已经排除了内存泄漏)，那么内存碎片就是一个问题。

处理内存碎片的常用方法是什么?

使用一个好的内存分配器。在IIRC中，那些使用“最佳匹配”策略的人通常在避免碎片化方面要出色得多，只是速度稍慢一些。然而，事实也表明，对于任何配置策略，都存在病态的最坏情况。幸运的是，对于分配器来说，大多数应用程序的典型分配模式实际上是相对友好的。如果你对细节感兴趣，这里有一堆文件:

Paul R. Wilson, Mark S. Johnstone, Michael Neely and David Boles. Dynamic Storage Allocation: A Survey and Critical Review. In Proceedings of the 1995 International Workshop on Memory Management, Springer Verlag LNCS, 1995 Mark S.Johnstone, Paul R. Wilson. The Memory Fragmentation Problem: Solved? In ACM SIG-PLAN Notices, volume 34 No. 3, pages 26-36, 1999 M.R. Garey, R.L. Graham and J.D. Ullman. Worst-Case analysis of memory allocation algorithms. In Fourth Annual ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computing, 1972

内存碎片与磁盘碎片是同一个概念:它指的是由于正在使用的区域没有足够紧密地打包在一起而浪费的空间。

举个简单的例子，假设你有10个字节的内存:

 |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9

现在让我们分配三个3字节的块，命名为A, B和C:

 | A | A | A | B | B | B | C | C | C |   |
   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9

现在释放block B:

 | A | A | A |   |   |   | C | C | C |   |
   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9

如果我们分配一个4字节的块D会发生什么?好吧，我们有四个字节的空闲内存，但是我们没有四个连续的空闲内存，所以我们不能分配D!这是对内存的低效使用，因为我们应该能够存储D，但我们做不到。我们不能移动C语言来腾出空间，因为程序中的一些变量很可能指向C语言，我们不能自动找到并更改所有这些值。

你怎么知道这是个问题?那么，最大的迹象就是程序的虚拟内存大小比实际使用的内存量大得多。在现实世界的示例中，您将拥有超过10个字节的内存，因此D将从字节9开始分配，而字节3-5将一直未使用，除非稍后分配长度为3字节或更小的内存。

在这个例子中，3个字节并不是很大的浪费，但是考虑一个更病态的情况，两个字节的分配，例如，内存中间隔10兆字节，而您需要分配一个大小为10兆字节+ 1字节的块。你必须要求操作系统提供超过10兆字节的虚拟内存，即使你只差一个字节就有足够的空间了。

How do you prevent it? The worst cases tend to arise when you frequently create and destroy small objects, since that tends to produce a "swiss cheese" effect with many small objects separated by many small holes, making it impossible to allocate larger objects in those holes. When you know you're going to be doing this, an effective strategy is to pre-allocate a large block of memory as a pool for your small objects, and then manually manage the creation of the small objects within that block, rather than letting the default allocator handle it.

In general, the fewer allocations you do, the less likely memory is to get fragmented. However, STL deals with this rather effectively. If you have a string which is using the entirety of its current allocation and you append one character to it, it doesn't simply re-allocate to its current length plus one, it doubles its length. This is a variation on the "pool for frequent small allocations" strategy. The string is grabbing a large chunk of memory so that it can deal efficiently with repeated small increases in size without doing repeated small reallocations. All STL containers in fact do this sort of thing, so generally you won't need to worry too much about fragmentation caused by automatically-reallocating STL containers.

当然，STL容器不会在彼此之间共享内存，所以如果你要创建许多小容器(而不是几个经常调整大小的容器)，你可能需要像处理任何经常创建的小对象(不管是不是STL)一样，注意防止碎片化。

这是一个超级简化版的傻瓜。

当对象在内存中创建时，它们被添加到内存中已使用部分的末尾。

如果一个对象不在已使用内存部分的末尾被删除，这意味着这个对象位于其他两个对象之间，它将创建一个“洞”。

这就是所谓的碎片化。